Cultural property + antiquities
Antiques, religious objects, archaeological finds, and ceremonial items are routinely controlled by both the source country (export ban without permit) and the destination country (import ban or due-diligence requirement). The 1970 UNESCO Convention is the backbone.
Source-country export controls
Many countries prohibit export of cultural property without a permit from the relevant ministry of culture or antiquities authority. Routine examples:
- Italy — Codice dei Beni Culturali; export licence required for goods over a value + age threshold.
- Egypt — strict prohibition on pharaonic antiquities export.
- Turkey — same on Anatolian antiquities.
- India — Antiquities and Art Treasures Act; pre-1971 items presumed restricted.
- Greece — Archaeological Service permit for any item over 100 years old.
- China — Cultural Relics Protection Law; pre-1949 items broadly restricted.
Destination-country import controls
Many destinations refuse import of cultural property without the source country's export permit. US CBP, EU customs, UK Border Force, and others have specific cultural-property units. Bilateral memoranda of understanding (MoUs) restrict specific categories (e.g. US-Italy MoU on pre-Hellenistic ceramics).
What counts as cultural property
- Archaeological finds (any age — even unprovenanced coins).
- Religious or ceremonial objects of recognised significance.
- Pre-modern manuscripts and rare books.
- Ethnographic items from indigenous cultures.
- Art from designated cultural traditions (varies by country).
- Items over an age threshold (commonly 50, 75, or 100 years).
Documentation that legitimises movement
- Source-country export permit.
- Provenance documentation (chain of ownership).
- Auction catalogue / dealer receipts.
- Certified appraisal.
- Import permit if destination requires.